Primordial black holes remain a mystery in modern astrophysics. These theoretical objects are believed to have formed in the first fraction of a second of the universe’s creation, when extreme density fluctuations caused matter to collapse into black holes of varying sizes – from microscopic to billions of times the Sun’s mass.
As the universe rapidly expanded and cooled, the conditions necessary for this unique type of black hole formation ceased to exist. Although their existence has yet to be confirmed, if they were it would offer intriguing possibilities for solving some of the universe’s mysteries, including the origins of galaxies and the nature of dark matter.
Primordial Black Hole Origins
When we think of black holes, the image that often comes to mind is that of stellar black holes, which result from the collapse of massive stars. Unlike their stellar counterparts, primordial black holes are theorised to have formed shortly after the Big Bang. The concept of primordial black holes was first proposed in 1966 by Yakov Zeldovich and Igor Novikov, with significant contributions later made by Professor Stephen Hawking.
The size of these black holes depended on how soon after the universe’s birth they emerged. If Smaller primordial black holes exist, they are thought to have evaporated over time due to Hawking radiation, a theoretical process in which black holes lose mass by emitting energy and particles. However, larger primordial black holes would be believed to have survived and possibly even still exist today.
Evidence For Primordial Black Holes
Though still hypothetical, efforts to detect them involve several innovative methods. One such approach is gravitational lensing, where primordial black holes passing in front of stars can amplify the stars’ light due to their gravitational field. Another method examines the cosmic microwave background radiation for imprints left by their interaction with surrounding matter in the early universe.
Additionally, the mergers of primordial black holes could generate gravitational waves, detectable by observatories like LIGO and Virgo, which have observed such waves though their sources remain under study. Intriguingly, researchers have even speculated about the potential detection of microscopic tunnels or tracks left behind by micro primordial black holes passing through dense objects, such as ancient structures.
A Window Into Dark Matter
Dark matter is a theoretical substance that constitutes approximately 27% of the universe. Unlike ordinary matter, it does not emit, absorb or reflect light, making it undetectable through traditional observational methods; its presence is suggested only by its gravitational effects.
Primordial black holes have been proposed as a potential explanation for dark matter. These black holes, if they exist in sufficient numbers, could account for the unseen mass exerting gravitational influence and their theoretical properties align with the requirements for dark matter, making them a potential candidate to understanding this mysterious substance.
Future Research
Due to their small size and the absence of direct emissions, primordial black holes will pose a significant challenge for detection. Scientists must rely on indirect methods to observe their effects. Emerging technologies, such as the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA), could play an important role in future efforts to detect them. This space-based gravitational wave observatory aims to measure the faintest ripples in spacetime, which could provide crucial data.
The Mysterious Disappearance Of Saturn’s Majestic Rings
Whether you’re an astrology expert or space novice, you can’t think of Saturn without imagining the orb with its iconic rings. However, in 2025 these rings will temporarily become invisible to planet Earth.
The Ring Thing
First observed by astronomer Galileo Galilei in 1610, there are seven main rings of Saturn and thankfully, their disappearing act isn’t cause for concern – it’s a matter of physics. Saturn’s rings extend up to 175,000 miles from the planet, and consist of pieces of comets, crushed moons and asteroids which shattered before reaching the planet. Yet, their vertical height is only approximately ten meters in the main rings. By comparison, they are paper thin.
Alignment, Axis And Angles
Saturn isn’t in perfect alignment with Earth; it’s tilted, which provides Earth with a stunning view of its magical rings. Both planets orbit the sun, and as Saturn completes its orbit approximately every 29.4 Earth years, it leans at an angle of 26.7 degrees. So, Earth’s view of Saturn swings between the upper side of the rings when it’s tilted towards Earth, and the lower side when it is tilted away.
However, an extraordinary ringless view emerges when Earth transitions between these perspectives, passing through Saturn’s ‘ring plane’. By March 2025, the rings are set to appear side-on with Earth, meaning they will ‘vanish’ from our viewpoint. According to Vahe Peroomian, a physicist and astronomer at the University of California, the rings reflect little light from this angle, making them mostly invisible.
Rings And Roundabouts
This isn’t the first occurrence of apparent ring invisibility. In both 1995 and 2009, Earth passed through Saturn’s ring plane and they appeared close to non-existent, so stargazers have just a few months left to catch a glimpse of them before they are out of sight again. However, after their vanishing act, they will start to become more apparent to planet Earth, and by 2032, Saturn is set to reach its maximum tilt, when we will get the best view of the planet and its rings in all their splendour.
Pioneering Planets
What’s more, this rare view of Saturn provides opportunities for scientists to discover more about the planet. In previous ring plane crossings, thirteen moons of Saturn were discovered, and it is now known to have over 146 of them – the most in the solar system. Similarly, the outermost ring of Saturn (it’s E ring, named alphabetically in the order they were discovered) was first discovered and can only be seen during such events. So while we might lose sight of one wonder, we may also be gifted a glimpse of something new.
References
Kranking, C. (2023): Saturn’s Rings Will Temporarily Disappear From View in 2025. Smithsonian Magazine. Source: smithsonianmag.com
Saturn: Planet’s iconic rings to ‘disappear’ in 2025 – Source: BBC Newsround
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Scientific Advances Made Aboard The International Space Station
I was captivated by the recent news about the two astronauts stranded on the ISS due to their Boeing Starliner being deemed unfit to return them to Earth. Their initial 8-day stay has now been extended to last until next February, as there is no available spacecraft to bring them home until then. This ongoing space saga will see Boeing’s competitor, SpaceX, coming to their rescue. NASA is eager to resolve the situation as quickly as safely possible, so that it can fully focus on its primary strategic objective: decommissioning the ISS, which is approaching the end of its operational life. By 2030, it will be steered out of orbit to break up in a destructive, fiery re-entry.
Thankfully, the legacy of this football-pitch-sized floating laboratory will endure. NASA plans to continue the ISS’s work by distributing its various activities across newly launched space stations before the 2030 end date.
Before the ISS project transitions into its next phase, it’s fitting to highlight the scientific breakthroughs that have occurred aboard the ISS since its inception.
1. Impact Of Microgravity On Muscle And Bones
Research on the ISS has shown that the human body can lose 1% to 2% of bone and muscle mass per month while in space. ISS scientists have also explored mitigation strategies, involving the use of resistive exercise devices (treadmills and workout stations), nutrition, and drugs that can significantly reduce bone loss. This research has the potential to improve osteoporosis treatments and prepare the body for long-range space travel.
2. Protein Crystallography
Protein crystallography is one of the most effective techniques for understanding the shape of human protein molecules, a crucial step in developing effective medicines. On Earth, growing such crystals in a fluid is hampered by gravity-driven convection, causing denser particles to settle at the bottom of the fluid vessel—a problem that keeps biochemists up at night! However, in the microgravity environment of the ISS, these crystals can grow to much larger sizes, making them easier to analyze. This has led to the development of novel treatments for conditions like cancer and muscular dystrophy, to name just a few.
3. Examining The Fifth State Of Matter
Just over two decades ago, researchers on Earth created a completely novel fifth state of matter, called a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) which has quantum properties. This is achieved by cooling particles to near absolute zero ( – 273 degrees Celsius) . Six years ago, scientists in NASA’s Cold Atom Lab were the first to create this fifth state of matter in space. This discovery should lead to significant breakthroughs in the understanding of quantum mechanics.
4. Advanced Life Support Systems
Developed and tested on the ISS, the space station’s life support system was designed to provide clean air and water to the crew. It purifies the station’s water, recycling 93% of the water used onboard. This advanced, compact water filtration technology has since been licensed for use on earth for water treatment. Such systems are essential for deep space travel and can be used to provide clean water in at-risk areas where clean water has become inaccessible.
5. Monitoring Earth From A Unique Perspective
Crew handheld camera imagery has enabled the ISS to actively contribute to orbital data collection, aiding disaster response activities around the world thanks to its unique panoramic viewpoint. Additionally, the ISS is equipped with SS-HDTV cameras that capture night images of Earth, helping to determine if power has been restored to cities after a disaster. The Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) detects the distribution and severity of lightning, improving severe weather forecasting. The ISS’s inclined low-Earth orbit complements weather satellites in higher-altitude polar orbits. Instruments like ECOSTRESS can analyze water stress in plants, while GEDI can assess carbon stores in forests.
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How And Why Leaves Turn Red And Yellow In The Autumn
With the 22nd of September marking the Autumn Equinox, we know the season is now upon us. But this is more than just a date; it’s driven by solar orbits and our relative positioning to and distance from the sun. This leads to longer days, higher temperatures and more intense UV radiation in the summer and less in winter.
Why Are Leaves Green In The First Place?
It is these physical effects that explain the green leaves that we observe on trees throughout the summer. During the spring and summer, the biochemical substance known as Chlorophyll dominates leaf chemistry. Its purpose is to absorb the energy from the Sun to create energy-storing molecules in the form of sugars. During this process of photosynthesis, Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red wavelengths and reflects green light, which is why it appears green.
Why Do The Leaves Change Colour?
As the temperature drops and the days shorten in Autumn, the leaves begin to receive less UV radiation from the sun, which triggers the breakdown of Chlorophyll. The tree does not replenish the Chlorophyll, and other chemicals start to dominate leaf chemistry. The beautiful yellow and orange leaves that we see in Autumn come from the xanthophyll and carotenoids, (now free from the masking effect of chlorophyll) which have a yellow and red pigment.
However, one of the striking botanical sites of Autumn is the fiery red leaves, also explainable by physics. This occurs in specific species of tree in years when there has been lots of sunlight and dry weather, meaning photosynthesis has been super-charged and there are very high concentrations of sugar in the tree sap. This causes the tree to produce anthocyanins, which have a red pigment, to rapidly extract the sugar from the leaves before they fall, to maximise energy reserves for the winter.
Once this process is over, the leaves die, and trees shed them as these leaves are unable to produce energy. It also makes way for new growth in Spring and the start of the new energy transducing system of photosynthesis.
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The Northern Lights And Other Lesser-Known Effects
In May, the world stood still,(or at least those with clear skies and late bedtimes did), to take in the rare global Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis) event. An enchanting spectacle, the Northern Lights appear in the sky, as you would expect, in the direction of due North, illuminating the night sky in colours such as pink, pale green, and shades of red, blue, yellow, and violet. It’s like being in a fairy tale.
However, there’s nothing fantastical about it; the Northern Lights are not created by magic, they are as a result of scientifically understood Geomagnetic Storms. These are temporary disturbances of the Earth’s magnetosphere caused by a solar wind shock wave (emanating from the Sun’s Corona) which causes an increase in energy in the Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere, which create the auroral light displays known as the Northern Lights.
What was unusual about the recent Geomagnetic storm in early May was its intensity; being the most powerful in two decades meant that the Auroras (Northern and Southern Lights) were visible across their respective hemispheres not just from the poles as is the norm. This made it a fascinating worldwide spectacle.
However, as well as providing an entertaining light show for the public, Geomagnetic storms have some other significant but lesser-known effects which scientists and historians are well aware of. The storms can disrupt telecommunications, GPS, radio, satellites, and even the electrical power grid.
For example, high-frequency radio transmission between aircraft and distant traffic control towers can be impacted. Thankfully, most commercial aircraft can transmit through satellites as a backup. Satellite operators themselves are not entirely immune though, and may have difficulty tracking their spacecraft and the power grids, (including our very own National Power Grid). They can also experience some ‘induced current’ in their lines, but can safely compensate.
The Greatest Geomagnetic Storms: Past, Present And Future
Back in December 2023, there was another big solar storm that temporarily knocked out radio communication on Earth, which led to two hours of radio interference and multiple reports from pilots of communications disruptions. But we have to go back nearly two centuries to 1859 for the biggest geomagnetic storm on record, known as the Carrington Event, which does sound ominous. The solar flare involved in this case was so massive that it reached the Earth in 18 hours, (it normally takes 4 days!). Telegraph wires in Europe and the US experienced induced voltage increases which delivered shocks to some telegraph operators and started fires. The Aurora Borealis over the Rocky Mountains in the US was so bright that the glow woke miners who started to prepare breakfast because they thought it was morning!
However, if you like what you saw in 2024 then brace yourself for 2025. Although we are unlikely to reach the highs of the Carrington Event, next year the sun reaches the peak of its 11-year cycle, and maximum solar flare activity is predicted!
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the most important molecules in all living things; it contains a unique sequence of information needed for life. There are in fact over 3 billion sequences in the human genome which are responsible for our genetic makeup. Each DNA strand would measure 2 metres in length once unravelled and serves an important purpose in protein synthesis, heredity and evolution.
DNA Structure
DNA was discovered in 1953 by Francis Crick and Jim Watson. Their research was significantly aided by Dr Rosalind Franklin’s research and famous Photo 51 of DNA’s signature double helix, allowing Crick and Watson to complete their molecular model.
We can think of DNA as a large book containing all of our genetic information. This is known as our genome. DNA is made up of a very long double helix of paired nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains one of four bases – adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine. They form the rungs of the DNA ladder with each base pair making up the ‘letters’ of our book. The order of these letters form sequences known as genes which can be thought of as ‘paragraphs’. It’s these sequences that make each person and organism unique. In each cell, our entire DNA sequence is broken up and stored into 23 separate pairs of chromosomes, forming the ‘chapters’ of our book.
Role of DNA
DNA serves as a store for all of our genetic information. It has the ability to replicate itself in order to ensure that when our cells divide, the new cells contain a perfect DNA copy. DNA carries out protein synthesis through the process of transcription. When a gene is ‘switched on’, a molecule called RNA polymerase attaches to the start of the gene sequence and unzips the DNA double helix into two single strands. A messenger RNA (mRNA) copy of a DNA gene sequence is synthesised as free bases attach to one of the single stands in a complementary fashion. Once the gene sequence has been fully read, the mRNA is processed – sections of mRNA are removed or added.
Within humans, the mRNA leaves the nucleus of a cell into the cytoplasm where protein production molecules called ribosomes produce an amino acid chain based on the mRNA sequence. The completed amino acid chain is then released to form a protein molecule. The sequence of amino acids within the protein determines its structure and function, which ultimately determine an organism’s characteristics and traits.
Human Evolution
By determining our features and characteristics, DNA plays an important part in evolution and heredity. Organisms inherit unique traits from their parents through the process of reproduction; here each offspring contains one half of each of their parents DNA to create a new genetic makeup. This process creates genetic diversity in a species which can aid its adaption and survival. It is interesting to note that all humans are 99.9% identical to each other – it’s this 0.1% difference in our makeup that makes us so unique. Scientists are able to compare DNA sequences within humans to understand our genetic ancestry, migration patterns and evolution.
Genetic Advancements
Modern day medicine and genetic discoveries have heightened our understanding of the human genome. DNA errors or mutations which can lead to diseases and genetic disorders can now be addressed through techniques such as gene therapy. As our understanding of DNA increases, so will our ability to improve our health through personalised medicine, precision agriculture and environmental conservation.
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From Fiction To Fact?
Marvel fans won’t need to be told about Adamantium, the metal that Wolverine’s retractable knuckle claws are made of. Within that fictional Marvel universe, Adamantium is one of the strongest metals on Earth, alongside Vibranium, the material that Captain America’s impregnable shield is made of. Some argue that Vibranium is stronger than Adamantium but in this would-be world, Adamantium is a man-made alloy, (unlike Vibranium which is mined for), making it more relevant to a new metal that scientists have discovered in the real world…
The Real Alloy
This real-world discovery is an alloy, composed of titanium, niobium, tantalum, and hafnium, (the latter three of which do rather sound like fictional Marvel metals but are real but rarely referenced elements from the periodic table).
Scientists have become extremely excited by this particular alloy due to its near-impossible strength in both hot and cold temperatures, something that had been previously unachievable, and making it a remarkable breakthrough. By strength, the scientists are referring to how much force a material can withstand before it is deformed from its original shape and toughness refers to its resistance to fracture.
While this new alloy is not yet strong enough to usher in a wave of super-heroes, its resistance to cracking, bending, and kinking across a massive range of conditions represents a breakthrough in materials science. Indeed, it could pave the way for a new class of materials that underpin next-generation engines that can operate at higher efficiencies.
“Adamantium Class”
The alloy in this study is from a new class of materials known as refractory high or medium entropy alloys (RHEAS/RMEAS). These differ from the typical alloy used in industry which is composed of one majority metal combined with small quantities of other elements. RHEAS/RMEAS are made of near equal amounts of metallic elements which gifts them with very high melting points and other unique properties that scientists are still in the process of quantifying.
Electron microscopy has revealed that the alloy’s unusual toughness comes from a rare defect known as a kink band, which serves to better distribute applied force away from weakened areas and across the super alloy’s crystal lattice.
What stunned scientists about this new Adamantium class of RMEA was that it was 25 times stronger than previous creations. But it also had a massive range of performance, remaining strong at high temperatures and withstanding snapping at temperatures as low as liquid Nitrogen (-196 degrees Celsius) – that could potentially deter Marvel Iceman’s freezing attack!
If you are interested in reading about the full details of this new discovery, follow this link for an article explaining it all the finer points.
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We have all heard of Albert Einstein. The world-renowned physicist is synonymous with clever advancements in science, and wild-haired professors who seem to know everything! Do you know about Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, though? It might be something you have studied in science, or perhaps read about online, or maybe it has come up in a Trivial Pursuit* question.
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity encompasses two main elements: Special (linked to physical phenomena in the absence of gravity) and General (which explores the laws of gravity and links to the forces of nature). Way back in the early 1900s, Einstein was working on both theories – and in fact, much of his work surpassed the field of physics established by older scientists, such as Sir Isaac Newton. But it wasn’t until May in 1916 that Einstein’s final theory of general relativity was presented. Much of this is linked closely to gravity and its effects on things. Such examples include:
• Rays of light that bend in the presence of a gravitational field
• The fact that the universe is expanding – and that some elements of the universe can speed this up.
Einstein’s Complex Solution
It is pretty complicated – but it is also something that affects the way we think about how the world works today. A key idea is how things fall when we drop them. If you let go of a marble in your hand, it will fall to the ground. The theory of general relativity explains this.
So, what about Special relativity, then? How is this different? You may well have heard of the famous equation E = mc2. Here, ‘E’ is the energy, ‘M’ is the mass, and ‘C’ is the constant speed of light. This concept was used in the development of nuclear energy – and also, the formation of nuclear bombs, weapons that were used to catastrophic effect in World War Two. With special relativity, the key idea is that motion is always relative – that is, how you perceive it will largely depend on where you are positioned.
A Surprisingly Early Equation
A lot of modern-day science is linked to Einstein’s theory of relativity. It is amazing to think that the genius of Alfred Einstein is something that was established way back in the early 1900s, before World War One and the sinking of the Titanic. His general theory came to the fore in May 1916 and this, in itself, is fascinating in so many ways.
*Other quizzes are available.
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According to our current understanding of physics, nothing with mass can travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum, which is approximately 186,282 miles per second. This is a fundamental principle of Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity. As an object with mass approaches the speed of light, its relativistic mass increases, making it more and more difficult to accelerate further. However, this answer is ironically too simplistic, and there are several situations where it may be possible for things to travel faster than the speed of light.
The Universe
Astrophysics shows that at some obscenely faraway point, the universe is expanding faster than the speed of light following the Big Bang, according to this article on space.com. This does of course challenge Einstein’s law of special relativity which we just cited above which says that nothing can travel faster than light. The theoretical astrophysics experts on space.com argue that special relativity only applies to local observations and faraway events fall under general relativity which allows for travel faster than light.
Quantum Entanglement
Quantum entanglement (QE) has until recently been thought to move faster than the speed of light. QE suggests that when 2 particles (photons or electrons), become entangled they remain connected even when separated by vast distances, and that the particles communicate with each other faster than the speed of light. However, experts on Caltech’s science exchange point to studies that show that this isn’t true and that quantum physics can’t be used to send faster-than-light communications.
Warp-drives
The final candidate for faster-than-light travel is by travelling through warped space. Yes, it is hard to discuss this topic without at some point mentioning Star Trek! This involves compressing the space in front of you (best done in the vast nothingness of Space and not on the heavily populated Earth) and then going faster than light through warped space at Warp speed as in Star Trek. According to the Mexican theoretical physicist, Miguel Alcubierre’s calculations, this is mathematically possible but requires negative matter or negative energy. The problem is that although theorised scientists have never observed negative mass, to generate enough energy to power a warp drive you would need all the mass of the entire visible universe. Later experiments have reduced this negative energy demand considerably to the mass of the sun, but it remains for now impractical.
The Speed Of Light Debate Isn’t Over
So, the expanding universe and, in theory, Warp drives, can travel faster than the speed of light. Quantum Entanglement still doesn’t seem to equal faster-than-light travel, though. That said, I don’t think the book is completely closed on this one.
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… And Does Earth Have Any?
A quasi-moon, also known as a quasi-satellite, is a celestial body that temporarily orbits a planet, but is not gravitationally bound to it in the same way as a natural moon. Instead, a quasi-moon follows a complicated and often irregular path around the planet, sometimes staying in orbit for a considerable amount of time before being ejected into space or drawn into a different orbit.
Zoozve
Perhaps the most well-known quasi-moon has, until recently, been Zoozve. This is an asteroid that appears to be in orbit around Venus. A closer inspection of its celestial journey, however, reveals clearly that it is not gravitationally bound to the planet. Rather, Zoozve goes around Venus and the Sun in a complex and unstable orbit which means it will be ejected from this quasi-satellite orbit or get drawn into another orbit.
Far Away And Close To Home
What’s fascinating about Quasi-moons is that although astrophysicists as far back as 1913 had predicted their existence, the theory was not confirmed until 2002 when Brian Skiff (of the Lowell Observatory) discovered Zoovze. Since this discovery, 8 more quasi-moons have been found; one associated with Neptune and 7 others that are orbiting alongside Earth. Neptune’s quasi-satellite doesn’t have a name but is referred to as 2007 RW 10 and has been in this state for around 12,500 years. It is believed that it will remain the same for just as many more.
The 7 confirmed current quasi-satellites of Earth are 469219 Kamoʻoalewa and (164207) 2004 GU9, as well as (277810) 2006 FV35, 2014 OL339, 2013 LX28, 2020 PP1, and 2023 FW13, which is the most recently discovered.
Quasi Moon 2023FW13
The new-found quasi-moon 2023 FW13 was first noticed last year on March 28 by the Pan-STARRS observatory and was confirmed by 3 other observatories before being officially revealed on the 1st of April. Experts believe that it has been orbiting the earth since 100 BC and will do so for another 1,500 years. Perhaps reassuringly, tt is thought to be the most stable earth-associated, quasi-satellite ever discovered!
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