The speed of evolution can be defined as the number of generations required for an initially random population to reach a specific evolutionary target or adapt to a defined goal. There are a number of factors that affect the speed of evolution, and many do not act in isolation. New research suggests that the speed of evolution is actually taking place up to four times faster than previously thought.
Genetic Variation
Mutation rates, gene flow and sexual reproduction are just some of the genetic factors that affect the speed of evolution. Mutations are often key to introducing new genetic variations that lead to different organism traits. If these traits prove to be advantageous, natural selection can help those organisms to proliferate. Gene flow – the exchange of genetic material between diverse populations, often facilitated by migration and reproduction – further increases adaption to changing environments.
An example can be seen in the peppered moth, which exists in both light and dark colours due to a genetic mutation. During the Industrial Revolution, increased pollution darkened the trees in surrounding areas, giving a distinct advantage to the dark-coloured moths with the mutation, which then became more common in the population.
Population Size
Small populations, which can result from environmental constraints or natural disasters, are often subject to evolutionary disadvantages. Genetic drift – a concept where genetic material is passed on by chance as opposed to natural selection – plays a larger role in smaller populations. Harmful materials are also more likely to be passed on through inbreeding, however, with smaller groups more likely to experience faster evolutionary changes.
Around 10,000 years ago, cheetahs experienced a population bottleneck which reduced their genetic diversity and gave rise to genetic drift. Today, cheetahs experience low genetic diversity, which have given rise to genetic defects and reduced fertility.
In larger populations, genetic drift plays a less significant function, as natural selection takes on a more dominant role. Larger populations tend to act as a larger repository of genetic diversity, which can enhance adaptability, although the rate of evolution is far slower due to greater genetic dilution.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors play a key role in the rate of evolution. Stable environments tend to result in slower rates of evolution due to less pressure to adapt, while fluctuating environments often drive rapid change in order to promote survival. Crocodiles have existed for over 200 millions years but have physically remained largely unchanged. Small changes in their river environments, temperature and food availability have led to a fairly consistence genetic diversity.
Coevolution is another key factor, often observed in predator-prey dynamics. In these interactions, evolutionary “arms races” occur, with each species rapidly evolving in response to the other. Additionally, human intervention has artificially accelerated evolutionary traits through selective breeding.
Primordial black holes remain a mystery in modern astrophysics. These theoretical objects are believed to have formed in the first fraction of a second of the universe’s creation, when extreme density fluctuations caused matter to collapse into black holes of varying sizes – from microscopic to billions of times the Sun’s mass.
As the universe rapidly expanded and cooled, the conditions necessary for this unique type of black hole formation ceased to exist. Although their existence has yet to be confirmed, if they were it would offer intriguing possibilities for solving some of the universe’s mysteries, including the origins of galaxies and the nature of dark matter.
Primordial Black Hole Origins
When we think of black holes, the image that often comes to mind is that of stellar black holes, which result from the collapse of massive stars. Unlike their stellar counterparts, primordial black holes are theorised to have formed shortly after the Big Bang. The concept of primordial black holes was first proposed in 1966 by Yakov Zeldovich and Igor Novikov, with significant contributions later made by Professor Stephen Hawking.
The size of these black holes depended on how soon after the universe’s birth they emerged. If Smaller primordial black holes exist, they are thought to have evaporated over time due to Hawking radiation, a theoretical process in which black holes lose mass by emitting energy and particles. However, larger primordial black holes would be believed to have survived and possibly even still exist today.
Evidence For Primordial Black Holes
Though still hypothetical, efforts to detect them involve several innovative methods. One such approach is gravitational lensing, where primordial black holes passing in front of stars can amplify the stars’ light due to their gravitational field. Another method examines the cosmic microwave background radiation for imprints left by their interaction with surrounding matter in the early universe.
Additionally, the mergers of primordial black holes could generate gravitational waves, detectable by observatories like LIGO and Virgo, which have observed such waves though their sources remain under study. Intriguingly, researchers have even speculated about the potential detection of microscopic tunnels or tracks left behind by micro primordial black holes passing through dense objects, such as ancient structures.
A Window Into Dark Matter
Dark matter is a theoretical substance that constitutes approximately 27% of the universe. Unlike ordinary matter, it does not emit, absorb or reflect light, making it undetectable through traditional observational methods; its presence is suggested only by its gravitational effects.
Primordial black holes have been proposed as a potential explanation for dark matter. These black holes, if they exist in sufficient numbers, could account for the unseen mass exerting gravitational influence and their theoretical properties align with the requirements for dark matter, making them a potential candidate to understanding this mysterious substance.
Future Research
Due to their small size and the absence of direct emissions, primordial black holes will pose a significant challenge for detection. Scientists must rely on indirect methods to observe their effects. Emerging technologies, such as the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA), could play an important role in future efforts to detect them. This space-based gravitational wave observatory aims to measure the faintest ripples in spacetime, which could provide crucial data.
A Natural History
For centuries, Mars has captivated the human imagination. Authors such as H.G. Wells, Ben Bova, and Kim Stanley Robinson have woven tales of the iconic but dusty and dry Red Planet. For much of history, scientists believed Mars had always been this way: a lifeless, desert-like landscape devoid of geological activity. However, discoveries in recent decades have unveiled a new story, revealing that Mars once hosted rivers, deltas, and possibly even vast lakes and oceans.
How Can We Know This?
Understanding Mars’ ancient waterways requires more than a telescope. Scientists have relied on data from powerful space probes like the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) and Mars Global Surveyor (MGS). These spacecraft have mapped the Martian surface in extraordinary detail, uncovering geological features that strongly suggest the presence of ancient rivers.
In 2003, data from the MGS revealed an ancient river delta-like fan, showing eroded deposits of transported sediment that have since solidified into interweaving curved ridges of layered rock. Geologists describe these ridges as inverted channels, formed due to the unique composition of riverbed sediments, which made them more resistant to erosion than the surrounding landscape.
Additionally, scientists have identified features resembling ancient “meanders.” A meander is a sinuous curve in a river channel, formed as flowing water erodes the outer bank and deposits sediment on the inner bank, creating point bars. These curving patterns are strikingly similar to those found in terrestrial rivers.
Roving Mars For Clues
More recently, NASA’s Perseverance rover, a mobile laboratory equipped with advanced scientific instruments, has uncovered compelling evidence of long-flowing ancient rivers in the Hellas Impact Crater on Mars. In 2020, the rover analyzed a 200-meter-high rocky cliff composed of sedimentary rocks. These rocks form when sediment carried by water or wind settles and solidifies into stone, much like on Earth. These formations are believed to be approximately 3.7 billion years old, and the rivers that created them likely flowed for hundreds of thousands of years.
The rover has also been exploring the Jezero Crater on Mars, thought to have contained a lake and river system about 3.5 billion years ago. Clues from this site reveal even more about Mars’ hydrological history. Flat, light-coloured rocks indicate slow-moving rivers, while large boulders, likely transported later, suggest periods of intense flooding or raging torrents.
Scientific evidence suggests that there was a time billions of years ago when Mars was far more Earth-like, a world of flowing water, dynamic climates, and geological activity.
Let’s Be Thankful For Thomas Edison!
Isn’t it the most wonderful time of the year? It’s cold, it’s festive, and beautiful twinkly lights adorn trees and buildings all over the country. Christmas lights are everywhere – in fact, many people string them up all year round, dangling from doorways and trees, and framing windows. They symbolise cosiness, comfort and warmth. So, all in all, pretty lights are the best! But – have you ever considered where we would be if Thomas Edison hadn’t invented the first electric light way back on 31 December in 1879? For one thing, the world would be a much duller place!
Illuminating The Season
We rely on electricity for so many aspects of our lives that it is hard to comprehend what life would be like without it. As I sit here typing this, I have my desk lamp on; my laptop is plugged in charging, and out of my window I can see buildings lit up and brightening the dark winter sky. Okay, so we can manage without electricity (at least in the short-term) – this is what candles are for! At this time of year, though, with shorter days and longer nights, electric lights can cheer up the most miserable of settings and make everything look so much nicer.
Something To Ponder
Thomas Edison was a world-renowned inventor and the electric lightbulb is just one aspect of what he created. If you look at a lightbulb today and see a capital letter ‘E’, you don’t have to work too hard to figure out what this stands for. You got it: Edison! If he hadn’t done this back in the late 1800s, I wonder whether we would have the range of lights we have today. Who knows?
When you are putting lights on your tree, or decorating your bedroom, or wandering around the shops in your hometown, you will, no doubt, see lights all over, from multicoloured to warm white, to ones that flash and are made in all sorts of shapes. Spend a few minutes having a think about the invention of lights and how all of what we take for granted today goes all the way back into the late 19th Century.
Without Edison’s amazing work, we might be seeing things in a very different light.
Viruses often have a bad rep; they are associated with words like “pandemic”, “disease” and “contamination”. They are, however, an essential part of life and have a surprising and increasingly evident role in the carbon cycle. New evidence points to their part in the fight against climate change; with increased understanding, we can influence how viruses improve our natural carbon sinks and counterbalance atmospheric carbon increases.
Viruses And The Ocean Carbon Cycle
Marine based phytoplankton and bacteria are responsible for producing approximately 50% of the world’s oxygen. They also play an important part in carbon fixation. Viruses infect a large number of these microorganisms, causing their cells to rupture in a process known as a “viral shunt”.
The “viral lysis” of microorganisms causes a large release of carbon and organic matter back into the aquatic food chain. Oceans typically absorb 25% of atmospheric CO2 but the viral shunt impacts their ability to carry out this sequestration process by recycling carbon back into the upper ocean. Some viruses interestingly carry genes that enhance carbon fixation and the ocean “carbon pump” process by boosting photosynthesis in cyanobacteria, even as the cell is breaking down.
Viruses And Soil Carbon Sequestration
Our soil stores more carbon than the atmosphere and world’s plant life combined and there are hundreds-of-millions to billions of viruses in each gram. Scientists are now starting to fully understand the vital roles viruses play in soil carbon storage. Similar to the oceans, the viral shunt effect can play a vital role in the level of soil-based carbon as well as its microorganism composition.
Viruses selectively infect microbial populations; they may target fast growing bacteria that allow those that contribute more effectively to carbon fixation to flourish. Depending on circumstances, this process can either increase carbon soil retention or lead to higher levels of carbon release, playing an important part in how ecosystems such as peatland (pictured) respond to climate change.
Regulators Of Ecosystem Carbon Dynamics
Viruses play an often-underestimated role in land and ocean carbon storage. They achieve this through the control of microbial populations and the viral shunt process. By better understanding the role of viruses in the carbon cycle model, scientists will be able to increase the accuracy of ecosystem responses to environmental changes such as temperature rises and nutrient depletion. This would be especially important within environments such as wetlands or areas of permafrost.
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Our planet is teeming with an incredible variety of life, but this biodiversity is not spread evenly. Certain regions—known as biodiversity hotspots—are home to a remarkable concentration of species and ecosystems. In fact, there are 36 recognised biodiverse hotspots, and to qualify as one, an area must meet two specific criteria set by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), a joint global body committed to protecting biodiversity. These are: To
contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants found nowhere else on Earth (known as “endemic” species); To
have lost at least 70 percent of its primary native vegetation.
These biodiverse areas have fascinated scientists and explorers for centuries. Perhaps the most famous example is Charles Darwin, who visited the Galápagos Islands in 1835. His observations of the islands’ unique species played a key role in developing his theory of evolution by natural selection, making the Galápagos a perfect place to start.
Galápagos Islands and Darwin
These volcanic islands, which are part of Ecuador, exist off its coast and comprise only 5.3% of the Earth’s land area, yet they house an incredible 20% of the world’s biodiversity. The Galápagos Islands also have high levels of endemism, meaning many species are found nowhere else on Earth. Latest estimates suggest that over 80% of land birds and 97% of reptiles and land mammals here are endemic. Many species remain undiscovered!
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
This isn’t just a place famous because of the popular kids’ movie, Madagascar, it’s renowned for its exceptional biodiversity. Located off the southeastern coast of Africa and separated from the mainland by the Mozambique Channel, Madagascar boasts many endemic species, just like the Galápagos. It’s the fourth-largest island in the world (after Greenland, New Guinea, and Borneo) and hosts 12,000 species of vascular plants (for comparison, the UK has around 2,500), 1,000 species of orchids (the UK has around 57), and 278 species of amphibians (the UK has only 7). If you’re a fan of frogs, orchids, or plants, this is the place to be!
Amazon Rainforest – The Biodiverse Lungs of the Earth
The Amazon is one of the most iconic wildernesses in the world, frequently featured in movies and documentaries—and for good reasons. Covering 40% of South America, it’s home to one-third of all species on the planet, including 2,000 bird species. Known as the “Lungs of the Earth,” it plays a critical role in processing carbon dioxide into oxygen through its 40,000 plant species.
Monteverde Cloud Forest – Costa Rica
Costa Rica may be familiar to you as it referenced in the novel and film “Jurassic Park,” but while it’s incredibly biodiverse, it lacks the dinosaurs! The Monteverde Cloud Forest is unique because its treetop canopy is constantly immersed in low-hanging clouds, which slow evaporation and create a rare, moisture-rich environment. This environment supports a massive amount of biodiversity, especially among epiphytes like lichens, orchids, and bromeliads, which grow on other plants without harming them.
Indonesia spawned Wallace’s Theory of Evolution
Shifting from South America to Southeast Asia, Indonesia is another exceptionally biodiverse region. This archipelago of over 17,000 islands combines both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. It contains part of the third-largest rainforest in the world and is home to extensive coral reefs. Indonesia boasts the most mammal species of any country, the second-highest number of fish species, and the third-highest number of bird species. The lesser known but still pioneering Alfred Wallace developed his own theory of evolution whilst exploring the Indonesia Archipelago at the same time as Charles Darwin was doing so in the Galapagos islands.
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As seasonal temperatures drop in late autumn and the days shorten in the lead-up to the solstice, animals such as squirrels, mice and bats enter a state of hibernation. Hibernation itself is thought to be triggered by reduced temperatures and declining light levels. Hedgehogs, for example, must reach a hibernation weight of between 500 and 700 grams, and the average temperature must drop to around 5°C before they begin hibernating.
During the preceding months, these animals intentionally overeat to build up fat reserves. Once winter sets in, they retreat into their dens and enter a state of near inactivity, enduring the coldest, harshest weather. Some animals also store non-perishable food in their dens, waking intermittently to eat. This hibernation typically lasts 4 to 6 months, depending on the species and the severity of the winter.
While we often take this hibernation process for granted, it is a biologically complex phenomenon, and something humans are not even capable of. Hibernation is a prolonged state of torpor, where metabolic activity is suppressed to less than 5% of normal levels. This drastic reduction in metabolic rate allows animals to conserve energy and stretch their fat reserves and food stores throughout the winter months.
Temperature Regulation And Extreme Cooling
Hibernating animals lower their body temperature by an average of 5 to 10°C. The arctic ground squirrel, however, exhibits the most extreme example of this adaptation, cooling its body to sub-freezing temperatures. This remarkable ability is believed to be managed by levels of adenosine in the brain, a neurotransmitter that increases in ground squirrels during winter. Their brains have been shown to become more sensitive to adenosine, helping to trigger this extreme cooling.
Slowed Heart Rate During Hibernation
Another key feature of hibernation is a dramatically reduced heart rate. For instance, a hedgehog’s normal active heart rate of around 190 beats per minute drops to just 20 beats per minute during hibernation. One of the lowest recorded hibernating heart rates belongs to the dwarf lemur of Madagascar, one of the few regularly hibernating primates. Its heart rate drops from a rapid 300 beats per minute to just 6 beats per minute.
Minimal Brain Activity
Breathing also slows significantly during hibernation. Instead of taking a breath every second or two, hibernating animals may go as long as 10 minutes between breaths. In the dwarf lemur, brain activity becomes nearly undetectable during this state. However, they are far from brain-dead. By definition, brain-dead animals wouldn’t be able to wake up. Interestingly, hibernating animals don’t even display typical sleep patterns. Their brain waves more closely resemble a waking state, albeit greatly suppressed. In fact, when they finally awaken from hibernation, they often need a prolonged period of actual sleep to recover.
Hibernation is a fascinating and complex survival strategy that allows animals to endure the harsh conditions of winter by drastically reducing their metabolic functions.
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Fireworks Season
While the 5th of November, Guy Fawkes Night, is the original fireworks night, it is also marks the start of a short season of displays, spanning the nocturnal winter months and marking key calendar and cultural events such as the Winter Solstice and New Year’s Eve. Most of us take these spectacular pyrotechnic shows for granted, but beneath the surface of every firework display lies a complex and fascinating science.
Launch Mechanics And Chemistry
Getting a firework into the air involves more than just lighting a pot of gunpowder; it’s a carefully engineered and orchestrated chemical explosion. A successful firework display involves five key phases: Ignition, Lift Charge, Burst Charge, Colour Production, and Special Effects.
Without the proper coordination of these chemical events, fireworks would simply explode on the ground in an uncontrolled and dangerous jumble of fast-moving, extremely hot debris and blinding light.
Ignition: When a firework is ignited, the heat from the fuse initiates the combustion of the fuel, which is typically charcoal or sulphur (the latter being responsible for the rotten egg smell that sometimes accompanies fireworks). The oxidiser releases oxygen, which combines with the fuel to produce a rapid exothermic reaction, generating heat, light, and expanding gases. Common oxidisers include nitrates, chlorates, and perchlorates.
Lift Charge: The expanding gases from the combustion reaction force the firework shell into the air. This is known as the lift charge, which accounts for the launch velocity and altitude of the firework. As the shell ascends, it reaches a point where a timed fuse ignites the internal components.
Burst Charge: At the peak of its trajectory, the firework’s burst charge, which contains more fuel and oxidisers, ignites. This explosion scatters the fireworks’ contents, including colourants and effect materials, across the sky.
Vibrant And Colourful Light Displays
The vibrant colours you see in fireworks are not random; they are carefully engineered by including different metal salts and metal oxides in the explosive mixture. For example, vibrant reds are derived from strontium salts, orange from calcium salts, yellow from sodium salts, green from barium salts, blue from copper salts, and purple from a combination of copper and strontium salts. The silver colour does not come from silver but rather from white-hot magnesium and aluminium, while white is produced by burning metals like magnesium, aluminium, and titanium.
But why do these metals create different colours when they explode? This is due to the unique arrangement of electrons around the nucleus of each element. During an explosion, these electrons become excited and emit different wavelengths of light (colours) as they release their energy and return to their ground state.
Special Effects
Chemists have learned to exploit different properties of these metal elements to create special effects. For example, aluminium, iron, and magnesium burn at high temperatures and create sparks, which are responsible for the bright sparkling trails and, of course, sparklers!
Organic compounds such as benzoates and salicylates are used to produce whistling sounds in fireworks. These compounds rapidly decompose upon heating, releasing gasses that create the characteristic noise.
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The Mysterious Disappearance Of Saturn’s Majestic Rings
Whether you’re an astrology expert or space novice, you can’t think of Saturn without imagining the orb with its iconic rings. However, in 2025 these rings will temporarily become invisible to planet Earth.
The Ring Thing
First observed by astronomer Galileo Galilei in 1610, there are seven main rings of Saturn and thankfully, their disappearing act isn’t cause for concern – it’s a matter of physics. Saturn’s rings extend up to 175,000 miles from the planet, and consist of pieces of comets, crushed moons and asteroids which shattered before reaching the planet. Yet, their vertical height is only approximately ten meters in the main rings. By comparison, they are paper thin.
Alignment, Axis And Angles
Saturn isn’t in perfect alignment with Earth; it’s tilted, which provides Earth with a stunning view of its magical rings. Both planets orbit the sun, and as Saturn completes its orbit approximately every 29.4 Earth years, it leans at an angle of 26.7 degrees. So, Earth’s view of Saturn swings between the upper side of the rings when it’s tilted towards Earth, and the lower side when it is tilted away.
However, an extraordinary ringless view emerges when Earth transitions between these perspectives, passing through Saturn’s ‘ring plane’. By March 2025, the rings are set to appear side-on with Earth, meaning they will ‘vanish’ from our viewpoint. According to Vahe Peroomian, a physicist and astronomer at the University of California, the rings reflect little light from this angle, making them mostly invisible.
Rings And Roundabouts
This isn’t the first occurrence of apparent ring invisibility. In both 1995 and 2009, Earth passed through Saturn’s ring plane and they appeared close to non-existent, so stargazers have just a few months left to catch a glimpse of them before they are out of sight again. However, after their vanishing act, they will start to become more apparent to planet Earth, and by 2032, Saturn is set to reach its maximum tilt, when we will get the best view of the planet and its rings in all their splendour.
Pioneering Planets
What’s more, this rare view of Saturn provides opportunities for scientists to discover more about the planet. In previous ring plane crossings, thirteen moons of Saturn were discovered, and it is now known to have over 146 of them – the most in the solar system. Similarly, the outermost ring of Saturn (it’s E ring, named alphabetically in the order they were discovered) was first discovered and can only be seen during such events. So while we might lose sight of one wonder, we may also be gifted a glimpse of something new.
References
Kranking, C. (2023): Saturn’s Rings Will Temporarily Disappear From View in 2025. Smithsonian Magazine. Source: smithsonianmag.com
Saturn: Planet’s iconic rings to ‘disappear’ in 2025 – Source: BBC Newsround
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The Scientific Explanations For ‘Ghosts’
With Halloween just around the corner, we’re approaching that time of year when spooky Jack’o lanterns illuminate our quiet, suburban neighbourhoods. Ghosts, horror movies and Halloween programming dominate our TV channels, and we get to face our fears or scepticism about the existence of ghosts. While I can’t categorically answer the question of ghosts or no ghosts one way or the other, I thought it would be interesting to see if there are any scientific explanations behind ghost sightings or paranormal experiences. Here’s what I found!
Low-frequency Sound Can Create An Unexplained ‘Spooky Feeling’
Humans can’t hear infrasound, which is sound at a frequency below 20 hertz. However, we are still affected by these sounds. A 2003 study of concert attendees exposed to sound at 17 hertz found that they felt “uneasy, sorrowful, had chills, and experienced a nervous feeling of revulsion and fear.” Other sources of infrasound include lightning, seismic activity, animals like elephants, wind turbines, and diesel engines. So, that spooky feeling in a supposedly haunted house might not be due to a ‘ghost’, but rather an explainable occurrence of infrasound! Convinced? No? Let’s try the next one.
Toxic Mould-induced Hallucinations
Researchers at Clarkson University in Potsdam, New York State, have noted that hauntings are often reported in old buildings with poor air quality. Their theory is that the air in these buildings is contaminated with spores from toxic moulds, such as rye ergot fungus, which is known to alter human perception. In such a neuroactive environment, a cold draft, a movement in the corner of the room, or anxious thoughts can easily develop into auditory or visual hallucinations, which could be mistakenly interpreted as ghosts. This seems fairly plausible to me.
Carbon-Monoxide (CO) Poisoning
If you see a ghostly apparition at home, one of the first things you should check is your house’s carbon monoxide (CO) detector. Many ghost sightings have been linked to CO poisoning. A famous case from 1921 involved a family who heard footsteps, felt weak, experienced headaches, and saw apparitions. The house wasn’t haunted—the source of their symptoms was a faulty furnace that was releasing CO into their home.
Sleep Paralysis
Sleep paralysis is a condition where people wake up in a state of paralysis. This state is normally induced by hormones during sleep to prevent us from physically acting out dreams. However, sometimes the wake-up process malfunctions, and you might wake up while still sleep-paralyzed, experiencing hallucinations. Dr. Priyanka Yadav, a sleep specialist at the Somerset Medical Sleep for Life Center in Hillsborough, refers to these experiences as “waking dreams.” They can involve seeing serpents, spiders, intruders, and even ghosts. This phenomenon, which used to happen to me, can be alarming. Experts suggest that sleep paralysis has been occurring for centuries, possibly explaining not only ghost sightings but also reports of demonic visitations in the Middle Ages and today’s accounts of bedside ‘alien visitations and abductions’.
It’s usually safe to say there’s a scientific explanation, then. Usually.
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